Tin-based materials as versatile anodes for alkali (earth)-ion batteries

The ever-growing need for next-generation rechargeable batteries with high energy density, long lifetime, high safety and affordable price calls for advanced electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), as well as the development of alternative energy storage systems based on abundant resources such as sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), potassium-ion batteries (KIBs), and magnesium-ion batteries (MIBs). Among various electrode materials, tin-based materials, including oxides, sulfides, alloys, stannates, and phosphides, attract substantial attentions since they can electrochemically react with lithium ions, as well as sodium ions, potassium ions and magnesium ions. The mechanisms for the storage of these alkali (earth) ions in tin-based materials have similarities, such as forming alloys (intermetallics) with tin. Meanwhile, the energy storage mechanism of a certain tin-based material may vary significantly from one battery system to another, resulting in considerable differences in electrochemical properties. In particular, findings associated with energy storage mechanisms are summarized and discussed. The effects of particle morphologies, micro/nanostructures and the integration with carbonaceous matrices on the electrochemical performances are summarized, and various innovative designs of novel three-dimensional architectures are highlighted. In addition, the remaining challenges and future perspectives of the development of tin-based materials for alkali (earth)-ion batteries are presented.