Longitudinal associations between parental migration and children's psychological well-being in Southeast Asia: The roles of caregivers' mental health and caregiving quality

Objective: This study investigates the longer-term effects of parental migration on the psychological well-being of children who stay behind in two major labor-sending countries in Southeast Asia, namely, Indonesia and the Philippines. Adopting the framework of the ‘care triangle’, we further examine how caregivers' mental health and caregiving quality moderate the associations between parental migration and children's psychological well-being. Methods: Using longitudinal data collected in 2008 and 2016/17, we assess children's psychological well-being during early childhood (aged 3–5 years) and again in adolescence (aged 11–13 years). We apply both fixed-effects and random-effects models, using the Hausman test to indicate the preferred model. Results: The findings indicate that there is no significant longer-term effect of parental migration on children's psychological well-being, but parental migration tends to show adverse effects on Filipino children's psychological well-being when they are cared for by a caregiver with poor mental health. Conclusions: The two-country comparison demonstrates the complexities of understanding the gender-based influences of parental migration on children's psychological well-being. The findings also highlight the caregiver's role in maintaining frequent communications with migrant parents within the care triangle, which is crucial to children's well-being.