Examining the 5Cs model of positive youth development in childhood: evidence from Chinese primary school students

Objective: This study examined the theoretical validity of the 5Cs model of Positive Youth Development (PYD)–competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring–among Chinese children. It aimed to evaluate the model’s factorial structure, gender invariance, and criterion validity with key developmental outcomes. Method: Participants were 251 primary school students (M^age = 8.70; 56% boys) from Guangdong province, mainland China. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) compared one-factor, five-factor, higher-order, and bi-factor models. Measurement invariance across gender was assessed using multi-group CFA. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to examine the relations between the 5Cs and internalising, externalising, and prosocial behaviours, controlling for age and gender. Results: The five-factor model demonstrated superior fit and strict measurement invariance across gender. Girls reported significantly higher levels of character and caring than boys. Among the 5Cs, connection, character, and caring were negatively associated with problem behaviours, and character positively correlated with prosocial behaviour. However, competence was linked with behavioural difficulties. Conclusions: Findings support the structural validity of the 5Cs model in middle childhood. Connection, character, and caring emerged as culturally salient PYD dimensions linked with behavioural outcomes. These results highlight the importance of integrating socio-emotional strengths into early interventions to promote positive development in collectivistic contexts.